Why Not Us? Experiences of Incarcerated Women on Education Access in Malawi Prisons

Samson C R Kajawo; Lineo R Johnson

doi:10.21467/ajss.13.1.25-39

Authors

Samson C R Kajawo University of South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5029-9555
Lineo R Johnson University of South Africa

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.21467/ajss.13.1.25-39

Abstract

Many incarcerated women worldwide have low education profiles that cause them to commit petty criminal offences among others. Thus, education access to incarcerated people, including women can be undoubtedly an indispensable strategy for their rehabilitation. However, education access could still be patriarchal and not accessible to women in prisons. Guided by radical feminist theory, this study employed a qualitative narrative research approach to explore from incarcerated women and correctional officers how education was made accessible at two prison facilities in Malawi. The key finding was that there was social injustice in the provision of education to offenders. Education access was monopolised by male inmates. Women were denied access to education even though they needed and demanded it since authorities preferred to use the available inadequate educational resources to provide education to only male inmates. It was recommended that gender equality needed to be exercised in the provision of education opportunities in prisons. Where resources are scarce, at least similar educational resources should be made equally and equitably accessible to both male and female inmates.

Keywords:

education access, female offenders, social injustice

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Acker, S. (1987). Feminist theory and the study of gender and education. International Review of Education, 33(4), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00615157 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00615157

Agboola, C. (2016). Memories of the ‘inside’. Conditions in South African women’s prisons. SA Crime Quarterly, 56, 19-26. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3108/2016/v0n56a43 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3108/2016/v0i56a43

Allen & Overy LLP. (2019). Women in prison. Africa regional initiative. https://www.vancecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/WIP_ARI_Report-Final-10-15-2019-compressed.pdf

Althusser, L. (1971). Ideology and ideological state apparatuses. In Lenin and philosophy and other essays (p. 127-188). New Left Books.

Armstrong, E. (2020). Marxist and socialist feminism. Study of Women and Gender. https://scholarworks.smith.edu/swg_facpubs/15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119314967.ch3

Atkinson, T. (1974). Amazon odyssey. Links Books.

Chigwada, R. (1989). Black women's unequal experiences of prison education. Gender and Education, 1(2), 199-201. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954025890010208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0954025890010208

Cohen L, Manion, L., & Marrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge Press.

Creswell, J. W. & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Cullen, F. T., & Gilbert, K. E. (2013). Reaffirming rehabilitation (30th ann. ed.). Anderson Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315721361

Dastile, N. P., & Agozino, B. (2019). Decolonising incarcerated women’s identities: Looking through the lens of prison abolitionism. SA Crime Quarterly, 68, 21-32. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3108/2019/v0n68a5622 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3108/2019/v0n68a5622

de Araújo P. F., Kerr, L., Kendall, C., Rutherford, G. W., Seal, D. W., Neto, R., Pinheiro, P., Galvão, M., Araújo, L. F., Pinheiro, F., & da Silva, A. Z. (2020). Behind bars: the burden of being a woman in Brazilian prisons. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 20(28), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-020-00247-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-020-00247-7

Dikshit, V. T. (2022). Feminists’ perspectives on gender gap in education. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 4(3), 24-35. https://doi.org/gqg9b9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2022.v04i03.004

Esin, C., Fathi, M., & Squire, C., (2014). Narrative analysis: The constructionist approach. In U Flick (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis (p. 203-216). SAGE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446282243.n14

Flick, U. (2014). Mapping the field. In The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis (pp. 3-18). SAGE Publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446282243.n1

Flowers, A. (2015). Girls behind bars: Reclaiming education in transformative spaces, by Suniti Sharma. Gender and Education, 27(4), 466-468. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2015.1019986 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2015.1019986

Ghaempanah, B., & Khapova, S. N. (2023). Gender inequality in academia from the perspective of the dialogical self: Beyond ‘autonomous men’ and ‘relational women.’ Gender and Education, 35(6-7), 605-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2023.2242367 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2023.2242367

Government of Malaŵi. (2018a). Gender Equality Act. In The Laws of Malawi (5th ed.), (pp. 4253-4262). Blackhall Publishing.

Government of Malaŵi. (2018b). Constitution. In The Laws of Malawi (5th ed.), (pp. 17-118). Blackhall Publishing.

Government of Malaŵi. (2018c). Prisons Act. In The Laws of Malawi (5th ed.), (pp. 1887-1991). Blackhall Publishing.

Gunnison, E., Bernat, F. P., & Goodstein, L. (2017). Women, crime and justice: Balancing the scales. Wiley.

Huber, A. (2015). Women in criminal justice systems and the added value of the UN Bangkok Rules. In H. Kury, S. Redo & E. Shea (Eds.), Women and children as victims and offenders: Background, prevention, reintegration. suggestions for succeeding generations (pp. 35-84). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28424-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28424-8_3

Jäggi, L., & Kliewer, W. (2020). Reentry of incarcerated juveniles: Correctional education as a turning point across juvenile and adult facilities. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(11), 1348-1370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854820934139 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854820934139

Johnson, L. R. (2015). Offenders’ perceptions of correctional education programmes in the correctional facilities of Tshwane. (Doctoral thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa). https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/19958

Kajawo, S. C. R. (2019). Examining the effectiveness of the management of education programme in Malawi prisons. Mediterranean Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 3(2), 203-213. http://mjbas.com/data/uploads/66218.pdf

Kajawo, S. C. R., & Johnson, L. R. (2023a). The right to education: Is it a reality or a pipe dream for incarcerated young prisoners in Malawi? Journal of Prison Education and Reentry, 7(3), 267-289. https://doi.org/10.25771/dzyv-7c36

Kajawo, S. C. R., & Johnson, L. R. (2023b). Education of incarcerated young people in Malawi: Strategic plan versus reality. Educational Policy Analysis and Strategic Research, 18(2), 7-26. https://doi.org/10.29329/epasr.2023.548.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29329/epasr.2023.548.1

Kajawo, S. C. R., & Johnson, L. R. (2023c). Exploring the perspectives of young offenders and correctional officers on rehabilitation programmes in Malawi: A mixed methods study, Cogent Social Sciences, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2276123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2276123

Kajawo, S. C. R., & Nyirongo, R. (2022). Education of people behind bars in Malawi. In L. R. Johnson & K. P. Quan-Baffour (Eds), Correctional (prison) education: An African panopticon. UNISA Press.

Kalipeni, E. (1997). Gender and regional differences in schooling between boys and girls in Malawi. East African Geographical Review, 19(1), 14-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/00707961.1997.9756234 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00707961.1997.9756234

Korzh, A. (2021). Education behind bars and beyond prison: incarcerated women’s education aspirations and barriers in Ukraine. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education. 53(4). 636-653. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2021.1941775 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2021.1941775

Maguire, M. (2021). Male, failed, jailed masculinities and ‘revolving door’ imprisonment in the UK. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61059-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61059-3

Mallicoat, S. L. (2019). Women, gender, and crime: Core concepts. SAGE Publications.

Ministry of Education. (2020). National Education Sector Investment Plan 2020–2030. https://www.unicef.org/malawi/media/4561/file/National%20education%20sector%20investment%20plan%20.pdf

Odinye, I. E. (2011). Feminism and self-assertion of female characters in Buchi Emecheta’s ‘Second Class Citizen’ and Zaynab Alkalis’ ‘The Stillborn’. UJAH Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities, 11(1), 40-53. https://doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v11i1.66306 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v11i1.66306

Penal Reform International. (2021). Global prison trends 2021. Special focus 2021: Prisons in crises. Penal Reform International. https://www.penalreform.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Global-prison-trends-2021.pdf

Pomerantz, S., & Raby, R. (2011). ‘Oh, she’s so smart’: Girls’ complex engagements with post/feminist narratives of academic success. Gender and Education, 23(5), 549-564. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2010.538014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2010.538014

Redstockings. (1970). Redstockings Manifesto. In R. Morgan (Ed.), Sisterhood is powerful: An anthology of writing from the women’s liberation movement (pp. 533-536). Vintage Press.

Republic of Malawi. (2019). National adult literacy and education policy. National Planning Commission. https://npc.mw/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Adult_literacy.pdf

Ryder, J. A. (2020). Enhancing female prisoners’ access to education. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 9(1), 139-149. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v9i1.1468 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v9i1.1468

Seely, J. C., Diouf, E. D., Malischewski, C. A., Vaikath, M., & Young-Burns, K. (2013). Second-class citizens? Gender in African citizenship law. Citizenship Studies, 17(3-4), 429-446. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2013.793071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2013.793071

Simpkins, B. (2015). College inside: A case study of the design and implementation of a successful prison college program. New Directions for Community Colleges, 170, 19-29. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.20140 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.20140

Thompson, D. (2001). Radical feminism today. SAGE Publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446219102

UNICEF. (2007). A human rights-based approach to education for all. A framework for the realization of children’s right to education and rights within education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000154861

United Nations. (2011). United Nations rules for the treatment of women prisoners and non-custodial measures for women offenders (the Bangkok Rules). A/RES/65/229. UNODC. https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/Bangkok_Rules_ENG_22032015.pdf

United Nations. (2015). United Nations standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners (The Nelson Mandela Rules). https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/70/175

Vance, C. R. (2020). Woman wahala na prison – Causes and consequences of women’s imprisonment in Sierra Leone. Center for International Justice and AdvocAid. https://advocaidsl.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Final-Woman-wahala-na-prison-web-version-.pdf

Vandala, N. G. (2019). The transformative effect of correctional education: A global perspective. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1677122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1677122

Walmsley, R. (2017). World female imprisonment list (4th ed.). Institute for Criminal Policy Research. https://www.prisonstudies.org/news/world-female-imprisonment-list-fourth-edition

Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.